A Grammar of Attic and Ionic Greek

1. Greek is written with the following twenty-four letters:

1. The names in parentheses came into use in the Middle Ages, but are now commonly employed.

Sigma at the end of a word has the form ς; in any other place the form σ. Thus, στάσις faction.

2. The letter F, ϝ, called vau or digamma, early ceased to be used in Attic and Ionic Greek. It had the sound of English w, and stood in the alphabet between ε and ζ. For other obsolete letters see § 156¹.

3. The vowels ε and ο are always short, η and ω are always long. The vowels α, ι, υ, are short in some words and long in others. In this grammar they are marked ᾱ, ῑ, ῡ, when long. The unmarked α, ι, υ, are, therefore, understood to be short. The mark of length is omitted over circumnexed vowels (§ 58).

4. The Attic sounds of the vowels, at about 400 b.c., are believed to have been nearly as follows:

1. The sounds of ῡ and υ are midway between English oo and ee. They are exemplified also in the German ü, as in Füsse, Brücke.

5². A diphthong is a combination of two vowels in one syllable. The latter vowel is always ι or υ. The diphthongs are:

1. In the diphthongs ᾷ, ῃ, ῳ, the ι is written below the first vowel, and is called iota subscript. When, however, the first vowel is written as a capital letter, ι stands on the line: thus, Ἅιδης Hades. The ancients always wrote i in these diphthongs on the line.

6. The sounds of the principal diphthongs, at about 400 b.c., were very nearly as follows:

1. In ᾷ, ῃ, ῳ, the ι was originally sounded. But later (about 100 b.c.) it became silent, and these diphthongs have since been pronounced like simple ᾱ, η, ω.

2. The sound of ηυ cannot be exemplified from English, but may be represented as ēh-oo, pronounced quickly together.

3. In the earliest times, the diphthongs ει and ου had, in some words at least, actual double sounds, such as their composition would indicate, and differed in pronunciation from the apparent diphthongs ει and ου, which arise from contraction of ε-ε, ο-ο, ο-ε, or ε-ο (see § 18, 3 and 5) or from compensative lengthening (see § 16). Thus, ει in γένει is made up of ε+ι (see § 18,1 and § 106), but in θεἰς for ⃰θεντς (see § 16,1) ει is merely lengthened from ε. In early inscriptions the real diphthongs ει and ου were written ΕΙ and ΟΓ, while the apparent diphthongs were written with simple Ε and Ο. Later (soon after 400 b.c.) both kinds of diphthongs came to be pronounced and written alike.

Diaeresis

7. The mark of diaeresis (΅) is sometimes written over an ι or υ, to show that it does not combine with the preceding vowel to form a diphthong: thus, βοϊ, pronounced in two syllables, bo-ί.

8³. A vowel at the beginning of a word always has a breathing, either rough or smooth.

The rough breathing (‛) shows that the vowel was pronounced with the sound of h preceding. Thus, ἑπτά seven is pronounced heptά.

The smooth breathing (’) shows that the vowel was pronounced with no sound of h. Thus, ἀπό from is pronounced αρό.

1. The mark of breathing is written over small letters and in front of capitals: thus, ἀληθής true, Ἀρκάς Arcadian.

2. In a diphthong, however, the breathing is written over the second vowel: thus, Αἰνείᾱς Aeneas, αὐτός self.

Note. – But in the diphthongs ᾷ, ῃ, ῳ, the breathing never stands over the ι, even when this is written on the line: thus, Ἅιδης Hades, ᾠδή song.

9. The consonant ρ at the beginning of a word always has the rough breathing (ῥ) : thus, ῥήτωρ orator (Lat. rhetor).

10. It happens also that all words beginning with the letter υ have the rough breathing.

11. The consonants were thus, pronounced:

1. Gamma (γ) before κ, γ, χ, ξ, represented the sound of n in ink, and is called gamma nasal: thus, ἀγκών (pronounced ankṓn) elbow, ἄγγελος (pronounced άngelos) messenger.

2. Rho (ρ) at the beginning of a word had a sound somewhat like hr (compare § 9).

Note. In Greek, every consonant was sounded. Thus, κτίσις a founding, φθίσις decay, ψεῠδος falsehood, were pronounced respectively ktisis, phthisis, pseudos.

12. The consonants may be divided into three classes, Semivowels, Mutes, and Double Consonants.

1. The semivowels are, λ, μ, ν, ρ, σ, and γ-nasal (§ 11, 1). Of these:

σ is called a Sibilant,

λ, μ, ν and ρ are called Liquids,

μ, ν and γ-nasal (§ 11, 1) are called Nasals.

2. The mutes may be classified as follows:

Those in the same horizontal line are said to be Cognate, because they are produced by the same organ of speech (lips, tongue, or palate). Those in the same perpendicular line are said to be Co-ordinate, because they have the same degree of aspiration (or vocalization).

3. The double consonants are ζ, ξ, ψ. Of these, ξ is written for κσ, γσ, χσ, and ψ for πσ, βσ, or φσ.

13⁴. In the inflection and formation of words, short and long vowels of similar sound often interchange: thus, δί-δο-μεν we give, δί-δω-μι I give; λιμήν harbor, λιμέν of a harbor.

Note. The long vowel corresponding to α is often η (see § 15).

1. The corresponding short and long forms may be seen from the following table:

14. The same root or suffix often appears with a different short vowel, as, for example, λέγ-ω speak, λόγ-ος speech; λύ-ο-μεν we loose, λύ-ε-τε you loose. Three different forms of this appearance are recognized, but the same root or suffix does not always present all three forms.

These forms are, (1) with ο, (2) with ε (3) with no vowel. Thus, ποτ-ᾱνός able to fly, πέτ-ομαι fly, ἐ-π τ-όμην fleiw.

1. But in case the third form (without the vowel) brings together a combination of consonants hard to pronounce, there is developed from the adjacent consonants in pronunciation a vowel sound, a. Thus, instead of *ἐ-τρ φ-ην, we have ἐτράφην was nourished, so that the series (of § 14) becomes (1) ο, (2) ε, (3) α: thus, τέ-τροφ-α have nourished, τρέφ-ω nourish, ἐ-τραφ-ην was nourished. (Compare English sing, sang, sung, and German sterben, starb, gestorben.*)

Note. An sometimes appears as the vowel-equivalent of ν: thus, παθος (for *πνθος) experience, suffering.

2. In combination with ι or υ the vowels e and ο, of course, make the corresponding diphthongs, so that we seem to have, on the one hand, an interchange of (1) οι, (2) ει, and (3) ι, and on the other, an interchange of (1) ου (rare), (2) ευ, and (3) υ ; but it will be seen at once that this apparent «interchange» is really the same phenomenon which has been described above (§ 14): thus,

3. The following table and examples may serve to make this principle clearer:

15⁵. In Attic, original ᾱ becomes η unless it is preceded by ε, ι, or ρ. Thus, original (Doric) φᾱ́μᾱ report becomes φήμη; but γενεᾱ́ generation, σοφίᾱ wisdom, πρâγμα deed retain α.

1. But a arising from contraction (§ 18) or compensative lengthening (§ 16) remains unchanged.

Compensative lengthening

16. A short vowel is sometimes lengthened, to make up for the loss of a following consonant. Thus, for *θεντ-ς we have μέλᾱ-ς black.

1. In this process, ε becomes ει (not η), and ο becomes ου (not ω). Thus, *θεντ-ς gives θεις, having placed, *δοντ-ς gives δούς having given.

Interchange of quantity

17. The combinations ᾱο and ηο often change to εω and ηα to εᾱ. Thus, νᾱός temple becomes νεώς, βασιλῆα king becomes βασιλέᾱ.

18⁶. Contraction unites into one long vowel or diphthong vowels which stand next each other in different syllables. The following are the most important rules for contraction. (Many of them admit occasional exceptions, § 715).

1. A vowel υ or ι unites with the preceding vowel to form a diphthong. Thus, γένε-ϊ gives γένει, πειθο-ϊ gives πειθοȋ, πρω-ϊ gives πρῲ.

2. Two like vowels unite in the common long. Thus, γέρα-α gives γέρᾱ, φιλέ-ητε gives φιλῆτε.

3. But ε–ε gives ει, and ο-ο gives ου (§ 6, 3). Thus, φίλε-ε gives φίλει, πλό-ος gives πλοῡς.

4. An o sound absorbs α, ε, or η, and becomes ω. Thus, ὀρά-ομεν gives ὁρῶμεν, φιλέ-ωσι gives φιλῶσι, δηλό-ητε gives δηλῶτε.

5. But ε-ο and ο-ε both give ου (§ 6, 3). Thus, γένε-ος gives γένους, δήλο-ε gives δήλου.

6. When α and ε or η come together, the first in order absorbs the second, and becomes long. Thus, γένε-α gives γένη, ὁρά-ητε gives ὁρȃτε.

19. A vowel standing before a diphthong is often contracted with the first vowel of the diphthong. The last vowel of the diphthong is regularly retained in the contracted form, but the apparent diphthongs ει and ου (§ 6, 3) are contracted, like simple ε and ο. Thus, τῑμά-ει gives τῑμᾷ (cf. § 5, 1), φιλέ-ει gives φιλεῑ, τῑμά-οιμι gives τῑμῲμι, λῡ́η–αι gives λῡ́ῃ, but τῑμά-ειν gives τῑμȃν, τῑμά-ον gives τῑμῶ (since ει and ου here are not real diphthongs; see § 6, 3).

Note 1. When three successive vowels are contracted, the last two are first contracted, and with the resulting diphthong the first vowel is then contracted. Thus, έτῑμάεο (for *ετῑμαε-ο-ο) you were being honored contracts first into ἐτῑμάου, and this in turn contracts into ἐτῑμῶ.

Note 2. Synizesis. Sometimes in poetry two vowels, without being regularly contracted, were so far united in pronunciation as to form one syllable. Thus, πόλεως might be pronounced as a word of two syllables, -εω- sounding somewhat like –υō-. This is called synizesis (setting together).

20. Between two consonants, a short vowel is sometimes dropped. (This is called Syncope.) Thus, ἔδται shall be, for ἔδεται ; ἦλθον came, for ἦλυθον.

21. Between two vowels, the vowels ι and υ are sometimes dropped. Thus, πλεί-ων more becomes πλείων ; *βασιλευ-ων becomes βασιλέων of kings.

CONSONANT CHANGES

Doubled consonants

22⁷. Attic regularly has ττ in place of Ionic σσ.

The Ionic form, however, is adopted by some of the Attic poets and earlier writers of prose.

23. Whenever the initial ρ, by inflection or composition, has a single vowel brought before it, the ρ is doubled: thus, ῥέω flow, ἔρρει was flowing. A diphthong, however, does not cause the ρ to be doubled: thus, εὔ-ροος fairflowing.

24. The ρσ of earlier Attic later assimilates to ρρ. Thus, θάρσος courage later becomes θάρρος.

Mutes before mutes

25. Before a lingual mute, a labial or a palatal mute becomes coordinate (see § 12, 2).

For example, *γεγραφ-ται have been becomes γέγραπται has been written, *λελεγ-ται becomes λέλεκται has been said, *ἐλειπθην becomes ἐλείφθην was left, *έτριβ-θην becomes έτριφθην was rubbed.

26. A lingual mute before another lingual mute is changed to σ. Thus,*ιδ-τε becomes ἴστε you know, *έπειθθην becomes έπείσθην was persuaded.

Mutes before liquids

27. 1. Before μ a labial mute becomes μ. Thus, *λελειπ-μαι, becomes λέλειμμαι, have been left.

2. Before μ a palatal mute becomes γ. Thus, *πεπλεκ-μαι becomes πέπλεγμαι have been twisted.

3. Before μ a lingual mute becomes σ. Thus, *πεπειθ-μαι becomes πέπεισμαι have been persuaded.

Mutes before σ

28. A labial mute before σ unites with it to form ψ (cf. § 12, 3). Thus, *λειπ-σω becomes λείψω shall leave, *φλεβ-ς becomes φλἐψ; vein, *γραφ-σω becomes γράφω shall write.

29. A palatal mute before σ unites with it to form ξ (cf. § 12, 3). Thus, *κορακ-ς becomes κόραξ raven, *φλογ-ς becomes φλόξ flame, *βηχ-ς becomes βήξ cough.

30⁸. A lingual mute, before σ is dropped. Thus, *σωματ-σι becomes σώμασι bodies (dat.), *ἐλπιδ-σι becomes ἐλπίδι hopes (dat.), *ὀρνῑθ-σι becomes ὄρνῑσι birds (dat.).

ν Before other consonants

31. When ν comes before a labial mute it changes to μ. Thus, *ἐν-πειρος becomes ἔμπειρος experienced, *ἐν-φανης becomes ἐμφανής visible, *ἐν-ψυχος becomes ἔμψυχος living.

32. When v comes before a palatal mute, it changes to γ-nasal. Thus, *συν-γενης; becomes συγγενής akin, *συν-χεω becomes συγχέω pour together.

33. When ν comes before λ, μ, or ρ it is assimilated. Thus, *ἐν-λειπω becomes ἐλλείπω leave in, *ἐν-μενω becomes ἐμμένω abide, *συν-ρεω becomes συρρέω flow together.

34. When ν comes before σ it is dropped (likewise ντ, and νθ, see § 30) and the preceding vowel is lengthened in compensation (see § 16). Thus, *μελαν-ς becomes μέλᾱς black, *λῡο-νσι becomes λῡ́ονσι they loose (§ 16, 1). Cf. § 99.

Disappearance of σ

35⁹. When σ comes between two consonants, it is regularly dropped, and when two sigmas are brought together by inflection, one of them is dropped. Thus, *ἐσταλ-σθε becomes ἔσταλθε you have been sent, and *τειχεσ-σι becomes τείχεσι walls (dat.).

36¹⁰. When σ stands before a vowel at the beginning of a word, it is often changed to the rough breathing: thus, ἵστημι set, for *σι-στημι (Latin sisto).

37. When a comes between two vowels, it is regularly dropped: thus, γένεος (contracted γένεους) of a race for *γενεσ-ος (Latin generis).

Metathesis

38. A vowel and a liquid are sometimes transposed. Thus, θάρσοσ and θράσοσ boldness.

1. Sometimes the vowel, standing after the liquid, has its long form (§ 13): τέμ-νω cut, perfect τέ-τμπ-κα have cut.

Consonants befoke ι

39. The vowel ι (which may sometimes have the value of a consonant), following certain consonants, gives rise to several changes. Thus:

1. With κ, χ, τ, or θ, an ι unites to form ττ (Ionic σσ, § 22): thus, φυλάττω guard, for *φυλάκ–ιω; νῆττα duck, for *νητ-ια; θάττων quicker, for *ταχ-ιων; (§ 41).

2. With γ or δ an ι unites to form ζ: μείζων greater, for *μεγ-ιων; ἐλπίζω hope, for ἐλπiδ-ιω.

3. With λ an ι forms λλ: βάλ-λω throw, for *βαλ-ιω.

4. With ν or ρ, an ι goes over to the preceding vowel and unites with it by contraction: μαίνομαι am mad, for *μαν-ιομαι.

40. The Greeks tried to avoid beginning two successive syllables with a rough mute (or a rough breathing). Thus, ἐ-τἐ–θην and ἐ-τύ-θην (instead of *ἐ-θε-θην and *ἐ-θυ-θην) are the aorists passive of τίθημι put and θῡ́ω sacrifice.

For the imperative ending –θι (changed to –τι) see § 233, 3; for the change of a rough mute to smooth in reduplication, see § 178.

41¹¹. For the same reason, a few roots beginning with θ, and ending in φ or χ, preserve the rough mute only at the beginning or the end. So, when, in the process of inflection, the rough mute at the end disappears, the smooth mute at the beginning becomes rough. For example, τριχ-ὀς hair, gen. sing., has for its nominative θρίξ; τρέφν nourish has for its future θρέψω; the root ταφ– becomes θαπ– in θάπ- in θάπ-τω bury.

42. Hiatus occurs when a word ending in a vowel is followed by a word beginning with a vowel.

Hiatus was usually avoided in Greek by means of (1) Crasis, (2) Elision, or (3) the addition of a Movable Consonant.

Crasis

43. Crasis (mingling') is the contraction of a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word with a vowel or diphthong at the beginning of the next word. It is indicated by the coronis (’) written over the contracted syllable.

Crasis in general follows the rules for contraction (§§ 18 and 19): thus, τοὐναντίον the contrary for τό έναντίον, έγᾦμαι I suppose for έγώ οἶμαι, θοἰμάτιον the cloak for τὸ (cf. § 44, 4). But some exceptions occur: thus, ταὐτό for τό αὐτό.

Note 1. If the first word ends in a diphthong, its final vowel is dropped before contraction: thus, κᾱ́γαθός for καὶ ἀγαθός.

Note 2. Synizesis between Two Words. In poetry a crasis, not indicated in writing, sometimes occurs between two words, and is called synizesis (see § 19, note 2). This happens only when the first word ends in a long vowel or diphthong: thus, μή οὐ, pronounced as one syllable.

Note 3. Apocope is the cutting off of a final short vowel before a consonant. Thus, πάρ, κάτ, for πάρα, κάτα. It affects chiefly prepositions, and is nearly confined to poetry.

Elision

44^{12 13 14}. Elision is the cutting off of a short vowel at the end of a word when the next word begins with a vowel. In place of the missing vowel, an apostrophe (’) is written: thus, ἐπ’ ἐμοί in my power, for ἐπὶ ἐμοί; ἕπτ’ ἦσαν were seven, for ἐπτὰ ἦσαν. (For the accent of ἕπτ’ see § 66.)

1. Elision is most frequent in prepositions, conjunctions, and familiar adverbs: for example, the final vowel in γέ, δέ, παρά, ἀλλά, μάλα, τάχα is frequently elided.

2. The vowel υ is never elided, nor is –ι in the dative of the third declension, nor the vowels of τά, τί, τό.

3. In the formation of compound words, elision occurs, but without being indicated by the apostrophe: thus, ἀπ-έχω keep away, from ἀπό and ἔχω; ἐπ-άνω on top, from ἐπί and ἄνω; ἀπ-έβην went away, aorist of ἀπο-βαίνω.

4. Whenever by elision a smooth mute and a rough breathing are brought together, the smooth mute becomes the cognate rough mute (§ 12, 2): thus, ἀφ’ὧν from which, for ἀπό ὧν; καθ-ίημι let down, from κατά and ἴημι.

45. ν Movable. – All words ending in –τι, all verbs of the third-person singular ending in -ε, and ἐδτί is, when they stand before a word beginning with a vowel, or at the end of a clause, regularly add a ν at the end. This ν is called ν movable: thus, πέμπουσι τὸν ἄνδρα they send the man, but πέμπουσιν ἄνδρα they send a man; εἶδε τήν θάλατταν he saw the sea, but εἶδεν ὄψιν he saw a vision.

46. The adverb οὐ before a vowel with the smooth breathing, becomes οὐκ: thus, οὐκ εἶδον did not see. Before a vowel with the rough breathing it becomes οὐχ (cf. § 44, 4): so οὐχ εἱλόμην did not choose.

47. The preposition ἐξ out of appears as ἐξ before words beginning with a vowel, and ἐκ before words beginning with a consonant: thus, ἐξ ἄστεως from town, but ἐκ τῆς πόλεως from the city.

48. The only consonants allowed standing at the end of a Greek word are ν, ρ, and ς.

Note. – Observe that words ending in ψ (= πς) or ξ (= κς) do not violate this rule.

49. In Greek, as in Latin, each single vowel or diphthong makes a separate syllable. For example, ὑγίεια, has four syllables.

50. In dividing a word into syllables a single consonant or any combination of consonants that can begin a word is customarily written with the following vowel: thus, ἱ-κα-νός suitable, ὄ-ψο-μαι shall see, ῥά-βδος wand, κά-μνω labour.

Other combinations of consonants are divided: thus, ἵπ-πος horse, ἐλ-πίς hope.

51. The last syllable of a word is called the Ultima, the next to the last the Penult, and the one before the penult the Antepenult.

Quantity of syllables

52. A syllable is long by Nature when it has a long vowel or a diphthong. Thus, in κρῑ-νοί-μην, all the syllables are long.

53¹⁵. A syllable is long by Position (or Convention) when its vowel is followed by two consonants or a double consonant (§ 12, 3). Thus, in ὄρ-τυξ; quail, both syllables are long by position.

Of the two consonants, one or both may be in the next word. Thus, in ἄλλος τόπος another place and ἄλλο στόμα another mouth the last syllable of the first word is long by position.

Note. – Observe, however, that the quantity of the vowel is not affected by position. The ε in λέξω is short, although the syllable in which it stands is long by «position.»

54¹⁶. When a vowel naturally short is followed by a mute and a liquid (§ 12) the length of the syllable is Common, that is, the syllable is used in verse either as long or short. Thus, in rewov child, τέκνον child, τυφλός blind, τί χρή, what is to be done? The first syllable is common.

Note. The mute and the liquid must be in the same word; otherwise the syllable is long by position.

ACCENT

55. The Greek accent consisted in a raising of the pitch of the accented syllable. It was not a stress accent like that of English.

56. In Greek there are three kinds of accent, the Acute (ʹ), the Grave (`), and the Circumflex ( ˆ ); the last being made up of the acute and the grave.

1. Every syllable of a Greek word had an accent, but, as the grave accent is of such frequent occurrence (standing on every syllable which has not the acute or circumflex), it was not written except in the case mentioned under § 67.

2. The marks of accent were not used in early times. They were invented about 200 b.c. for the help of foreigners and of others who were studying the greek language.

57. The marks of accent are written over the vowel of the accented syllable.

1. In case of a diphthong the accent stands over the second vowel, unless the second vowel is ι subscript: thus, αὐτοîς, αὐτούς; but αὐτῷ (cf. § 8, 2 and note).

2. When both breathing and accent belong to the same vowel, the acute or the grave accent is written after the breathing: thus, ὅλος whole, ὃς ἔσται who shall be. But the circumflex accent is written above the breathing: thus, ἦγε was leading.

3. When breathing and accent belong to a capital letter they are placed before it: thus, Ἕλλην Greek, Ἦλις Elis, Ἅιδης Hades (cf. § 8, 1).

Rules for accent

58. The circumflex accent can stand only on a syllable long by nature (§ 52); the acute may stand on a long or a short syllable.

59. The circumflex accent may stand only on one of the last two syllables of a word; the acute may stand only on one of the last three syllables.

60. Moreover, if the last syllable is long by nature (§ 52), the circumflex may stand only on the last syllable, and the acute only on one of the last two syllables.

61. A long penult followed by a short final syllable must, if it has a written accent, have the circumflex.

Note. Some further special rules of accent will be given under Inflection, but the position of the accents on Greek words must, in general, be learned by observation.

62. Examples of accented words are:

63. The diphthongs at and 01 at the end of a word have the effect of short vowels on the accent, except in the optative mood and in the adverb οἴκοι: thus, χῶραι lands, ἄνθρωποι men; but παιδεύοι, optative of παιδεύω educate.

64. Recessive Accent. A word is commonly said to have Recessive Accent when the written accent stands as far from the end of the word as the laws of accent (§§ 58–61) will allow. Thus, ἐλύθην was loosed, λῡον was loosing, θέατρον theatre, have recessive accent.

Accent of contracted syllables

65. When two syllables contract into one, in case either of the original syllables had a written accent (that is, the acute or the circumflex), the syllable resulting from the contraction retains a written accent; otherwise it has the unwritten grave (§ 56, 1). Thus, τῑμά-ει gives τῑμᾷ, but τῑ́μα–ε gives τῑ́μᾱ.

1. If the first of the two syllables originally had the acute, the acute combines with the unwritten grave (§ 56, 1) of the second syllable to form the circumflex. Thus, τῑμά-ω (i.e. τῑ́μά-ὼ) gives τῑμῶ.

2. But if the second of the two syllables had the acute, the syllable resulting from the contraction also has the acute (since it is plain that ˋ ˊ will not combine into

). Thus, ἑστα-ώς (i.e. ἓστὰ-ώς) gives ἑστώς.

Accent of elided words

66. In elision (§ 44) oxytone (§ 62) prepositions and conjunctions lose their written accent: thus, ἀλλ’ ἔφη but he said, for ἀλλὰ ἔφη; other words retain it, but on the preceding syllable: thus, ἕπτ’ ἦσαν were seven, for ἑπτὰ ἦσαν.

Note. In crasis (§ 43) the first of the two words loses its written accent.

Change of acute to grave

67. Wherever a word having the acute accent on the last syllable is followed by another word in close connection, its acute changes to the grave: thus, παρά beside, τόν the, but παρά τόν βασιλέα to the side of the king. (For τίς, see § 148, 1.)

68¹⁷. Anastrophe. A preposition of two syllables having the acute accent on the last syllable, when it follows the substantive with which it is used, or when it does the duty of a verb, shifts its written accent from the last syllable to the first: thus, τούτων πέρι about this; πάρα, for πάρεστι, it is allowed.

69. A few words of one syllable attach themselves so closely to the following word that they lose their own written accent. They are called Proclitics (from προκλῑ́ lean forward). They are:

The forms ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ, of the article the;

The conjunctions εἱ if, ὡς as;

The prepositions ἑν in, εἱς (ἑς) into, ἑξ (ἑκ, § 47) out of, ὡς to;

The adverb οὑ (οὑκ, οὑχ § 46) not.

1. When, however, a proclitic stands at the end of a sentence, or is followed by an enclitic (§ 70, 8), it receives a written accent. Thus, φῄς, ἢ οὔ; do you say yes or no? οὔ φημι I say no.

70. Some words of one or two syllables attach themselves so closely to the preceding word that they give up their own written accent. These words are called Enclitics (from ἑγλῑ́ lean upon). They are:

The pronouns μοῦ, μοί, μέ; σοῦ, σοί, σέ; οὗ, οἷ, ἕ and σφίδι. See however § 139, 2;

The indefinite pronoun τὶς, τὶ in all its forms, and the indefinite adverbs ποῦ, πῇ, ποῖ, ποθέν, ποτέ, πῶ, πῶς;

The present indicative of εἰμί am and φημί say, except the second persons singular εἶ, φῄς. (For the accent of ἐδτί see § 262, 1);

The particle’s γέ, τέ, τοί, πέρ.

1. If the word preceding an enclitic has the acute accent on either of the last two syllables, or the circumflex on the last syllable, its accent remains unchanged: thus, ἀνήρ τις a man, λόγων τινῶν (§ 71,4) of some words, χωρῶν τιυων of some lands.

2. If the word preceding an enclitic has the acute accent on the antepenult, or the circumflex on the penult, it adds an acute accent on the last syllable: thus, ἄνθρωποί τινες some men, γλῶττά a tongue.

3. A proclitic (§ 69) before an enclitic takes an acute accent: thus, εἴ τις if anybody, οὔ φασι, they deny (see § 69, 1).

4. If several enclitics follow each other, the last alone remains without written accent; each of the others receives an acute accent from the following enclitic: thus, εἴ πού τίς τινα [ἴδοι] if anybody [should see] anybody anywhere.

71. Accent of Enclitics Retained. – Enclitics retain their own accent:

1. When they begin a sentence, as εἰδὶν ἄνδρες there are men;

2. When they are emphatic, as ἀλλά δὲ λέτγω but you I mean;

3. When the vowel which would be affected by the enclitic has been elided (§ 44), as ταῦτ’ ἐστί, for ταῦτά ἐστι this is;

4. When an enclitic of two sjdlables follows a word which has the acute accent on the penult, as ἀνθρώπου τινός of a man.

Note. – Some words are so frequently combined with an enclitic that the combination comes to be regarded as one word. Thus, ὥστε so that (ὡς + τε), καίτοι although (καί + τοι), οὗτινος of whomsoever (οὗ + τινος), are not exceptions to the rule of accent given in §§ 59 and 61.

72. The Greek marks of punctuation are the period (.), colon (•), comma (‚), and mark of interrogation (;).

The colon is a point above the line, and it takes the place of the English colon and semicolon.

Note. The ancient Greeks seldom used any marks of punctuation, but wrote their words continuously. Thus, ΕΔΟΞΕΝΤΗΙΒΥΛΗΙΚΑΙΤΩΙΔΗΜΩΙ = ἔδοξεν τῇ βουλῇ καί τῷ δήμῳ It was voted by the Senate and the People.

Ancient greek writing on stone

(Of the Fifth Century b.c.)

73. Inflection is a change in the form of a word to indicate its relation to other words.

1. In inflection a part of the word remains the same, and is called the Stem. Thus, the stem of ἄνθρωπος man is ἀνθρωπο-, and -ς is the ending of the nominative case; in ἔ-λῡε he was loosing, λῡε– is a stem of the present system, and ἐ- is a prefix denoting past time. (See also § 163.) Some words, in their inflection, show more than one form of stem.

2. The inflection of Nouns (Substantives and Adjectives) and Pronouns is called Declension ; the inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation.

74. Gender, Number, and Case. – There are in Greek:

three GENDERS: Masculine, Feminine and Neuter;

three NUMBERS: Singular, Dual and Plural;

five CASES: Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative and Vocative.

Note 1. The dual number refers to two objects. It has but two forms, one for the nominative, accusative, and vocative, the other for the genitive and dative.

Note 2. The vocative in the plural is always like the nominative ; in the singular it is often so.

Note 3. Neuter words always have the nominative and vocative like the accusative; in the plural these cases always end in –α (at least before contraction).

75. Declensions. – There are in Greek three declensions of nouns, classed according to the endings of the stems. The First Declension has steins ending in –ᾱ, the Second Declension has stems ending in –ο. These two together are sometimes called the Vowel Declension. The Third Declension has mostly stems ending in a consonant (see § 93) and is called the Consonant Declension.

76^18. Case endings

The case endings of the vowel and the consonant declension have many points in common, as may be seen from the following table: –¹⁹

Note. – Locative Case. There are in Greek some relics of a Locative Case, confined mostly to names of places. The ending of the locative in the singular is -ι and in the plural –σι: Πῡθοῖ at Pytho (Delfi), οἴκοι at home, Ἄριει at Argos, Ἀθήνησι at Athens.

77. Accent in Declension. – 1. The written accent of a noun, throughout its declension, remains on the same syllable as in the nominative singular, or as near that syllable as the general laws of accent will allow: thus, ἄνθρωπος man, acc. sing. ἄνθρωπον, nom. plur. ἄνθρωποι, but gen. sing. ἄνθρωπου (§ 60), dat. plur. ἀνθρώποις; ὄνομα name, gen. sing. ὀνόματος (§ 59), gen. plur. ὀνομάτων (§ 60).

2. In the genitive and dative of all numbers a long final syllable, if it has written accent, has the circumflex: thus, ποταμός river, dat. sing, ποταμῷ; πούς foot, gen. plur. ποδῶν.

General rules for gender

78. 1. MASCULINE are names of Males, of Winds, of Rivers, and of Months.

2. FEMININE are names of Females, and most names of Lands, Islands, Towns, Trees, and Abstract Ideas.

3. NEUTER are most Diminutives (§ 283) and most names of Fruits.

Note. – Common Gender. Some names of beings may be used either as masculine or feminine, as occasion requires. Thus, παῖς child may be masculine or feminine, and may mean boy or girl.

79. It is customary to indicate the gender of Greek words by means of the article (§ 144): ὁ for masculine, ἡ for feminine, and τό for neuter.

FIRST DECLENSION

(the –α declension)

80. Words of the first declension are feminine or masculine. They have stems ending in ᾱ. In many of the forms this ᾱ is shortened or disguised.

A. Feminines

81. The feminines form two classes: (1) those ending in – ᾱ or –η, and (2) those ending in short –ᾱ. They are declined as follows

Other examples of the first class are: ἡμέρᾱ day (gen. sing, μἡμέρᾶς, nom. plur. ἡμέραι), σκιᾱ́ shadow (gen. sing. σκιᾶς, nom. plur. σκιαί), πύλη gate (gen. sing. πύλης nom. plur. πύλαι), γνώμη judgment (gen. sing. γνώμης nom. plur γνῶμαι).

Other examples of the second class are: μοῖρα fate (gen. sing, μοίρᾱς, nom. plur. μοῖραι), δόξα opinion (gen. sing. δόξης, nom. plur. δόξαι), τράπεζα table (gen. sing. τραπέζης, nom. plur. τραπέζαι.

82. Observe that the second class has short –a in the final syllable of three cases of the singular nominative, accusative, and vocative. The first class, on the other hand, has a long vowel (ᾱ or η) in the final syllable throughout the singular.

83²⁰. All words of the first class originally ended in –a. This a is retained if immediately preceded by ε, ι, or ρ (cf. § 15); thus, γενεᾱ́, σοφίᾱ, χώρᾱ. Otherwise it is changed to η throughout the singular: thus, τῑμή (formerly τιμᾱ́).

1. In the genitive and dative singular of words of the second class, the use of ᾱ́ or η is determined by the same rule: thus, γεφῡ́ρᾱς (because ρ precedes the ᾱ), but γλώττης.

84²¹. The Genitive Plural of the first declension always has the circumflex accent on the last syllable, because –ῶν is contracted from –ᾱ́–ων (originally *- ᾱ́–σων; cf. § 37, and the Latin ending arum in stellarum): thus, χωρῶν for χωρᾱ-́ων.

Note. – In the accusative plural –ας is for –ᾱνς (§ 34).

B. Masculines

85. The masculines have the case ending –ς in the nominative singular. They are declined as follows:

Other examples for declension are steward (like νεᾱνίας), στρατιώτης soldier (like πολῑ́της), κρτής judge(gen. sing. κριτοῦ voc. κριτά, nom. plur. κριταί), Κρνίδης son of Kronos (like Ἀτρείδης, but nom. plur. Κρονίδαι).

86. In the last syllable of the singular ᾱ is retained after ε, ι and ρ (§ 15); otherwise it changes to η. Compare § 83.

87²². The vocative singular of words in –ης, like Ἀτρείδης, ends in –η; but all words in-της, and compaund nouns and names of nationality in –ης have short –α in the vocative: thus, πολῖτα, voc. of πολίτης; citizen; σῑτοπῶλα, voc. of σῑτοπώλης grain seller; Πέρσα, voc. of Πέρσης Persian.

Note. The ending –ου of the genitive singular is borrowed bodily from the second declension (cf. § 87 a).

88²³. In some words, –εα (or –αα) is contracted to –ᾱ or –η. All cases then have the circumflex (§ 65, 1). Such words are declined as follows:

So also is declined Βορρᾶς (for Βορέᾶς with irregular –ρρ-) north wind, in the singular only.

SECOND DECLENSION

89. Words of the Second Declension are nearly all masculine or neuter. The few feminines are declined like the masculines. The stems end in ο.

The nominative singular of masculines and feminines ends in –ος. The nominative, vocative, and accusative of neuters are alike, and they end in the singular in –ον, and in the plural in –α.

90²⁴. Words of the second declension are inflected as follows:

So also are declined νόμος law (gen. sing, νόμου, nom. plur. νὀμοι), κίννδῡνος danger, ταῦρος bull (nom. plur. –ταῦροι), ποταμός river, στρατηγός general, νῆσος (fem.) island, μέτρον measure, ἷμάτιον cloack.

Contract substantives of the second declension

91. Words which have stems ending in –οο and –εο undergo contraction in accordance with the rules given in §§ 18 and 19. They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ὁ ῥοῦς (ῥόος) stream, τὸ κανοῦν (κάνεον, cf. § 118, 3) basket.

1. Observe that the contraction of ὁστᾶ is contrary to the rule of § 18, 6.

2. Observe that the nominative dual, if it has written accent on the last syllable, has the acute (contrary to § 65, 1): thus, νώ (irregularly from νόω).

3. Observe that contracted compounds have recessive accent (§ 64) in spite of the contraction: thus, περίπλῳ (for περίπλόῳ), εὖνοι (for εὔνοοι) kindly disposed. But the written accent almost never goes back to the syllable on which it stood in the nominative singular (§ 77): thus, περίπλοι (not πέριπλοι).

Stems in –ω–

ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION

92²⁵. To the second declension belong also a few words whose stems end in co. They are, thus, declined:

So also λεώς people, κάλως cable.

1. Observe that the genitive and dative, when they have written accent on the last syllable, take the acute, contrary to § 77, 2.

2. Many of these words were produced by an interchange of quantity (§ 17), ᾱο becoming εω: thus, λεώς from λᾱός. In such words, the long vowel at the end does not affect the position of the accent (cf. § 60): thus, Μενέλεως Menelaus (from Μενέλᾱος).

3. Some words have no ν in the accusative singular. Thus, λαγώς hare has acc. sing. λαγώ and λαγών; ἕως dawn has only ἕω.

THIRD DECLENSION

93. Words of the Third (or Consonant) Declension have stems ending in a consonant, or in a vowel (ι or υ) which may sometimes be sounded as a consonant. A few stems appear to end in ο (but see §§ 112, 113).

1. The stem of words of this declension may usually be found by dropping the ending –ος of the genitive singular.

94. Gender. – The gender of words of the third declension must usually be learned by observation, but a few general rules may be given.

1. Stems ending in a labial or a palatal mute are never neuter.

2. MASCULINE are stems ending in ευ, ντ, ητ (except those in –τητ-), ωτ and ρ (except those in –αρ-).

3. FEMININE are stems ending in τητ, δ, θ, ι (with nom. in –ις), and υ (with nom. in –υς).

4. NEUTER are stems ending in αρ, ασ, ατ, ες (with nom. in –ος), and υ (with nom. in –υ).

Formation of cases

95. Neuters. – Neuter words of the third declension regularly have the nominative, accusative, and vocative singular like the simple stem. A final τ is dropped (§ 48): thus, σῶμα (stem σωματ) body.

96. Masculine and Feminine Nominative Singular. – Most masculine and feminine words of the third declension form the nominative by adding –ς to the stem. For the euphonic change which may follow, see §§ 28–30, 34: thus, κλῖμαξ (for *κλιμακ-ς) ladder (cf. Latin dux, ducis).

1. But stems in –ν-, –ρ-, –σ– and –οντ– regularly have in the nominative only the simple stem with a long vowel (§ 13): thus, λιμήν (λιμεν-) harbor, ῥήτωρ (ῥήτορ) orator, Σωκράτης (Σωκράτεσ-) Socrates, λέων (λεοντ-) lion (§ 48).

Note. Some of these words retain the long vowel of the nominative throughout their declension: thus, Ἕλλην Greek, gen. Ἕλλη-νος, etc.; χειμών winter, gen. χειμῶνος, etc.

97. Accusative Singular. – The accusative singular of masculine and feminine words adds –α to consonant stems and –ν to vowel stems: thus, πούς foot (stem ποδ-), accus. sing. πόδ-α; but πόλις city (stem πολι-), accus. sing. πόλιν. (Cf. § 14, 2 note.)

1. But stems of more than one syllable ending in ιτ or ιδ, without written accent on the last syllable, almost always drop the final mute and take the ending ν: thus, ἕρις strife (stem ἐριδ-), accus. sing. ἕριν.

98. Vocative Singular. – The vocative singular is regularly the mere stem: thus, δαίμων divinity, voc. δαῖμον (stem δαιμον-); γέρων old man, voc. γέρον– (stem γεροντ-, see § 48).

1. But masculine and feminine words which form their nominative singular without ς (§ 96, 1), when they have written accent on the last syllable, and all other mute stems (except those in –ιδ-), use the nominative singular as vocative: thus, ποιμήν (stem ποιμεν-) shepherd, voc. ποιμήν; φύλαξ; (stem φυλακ-) watchman, voc. φύλαξ (but ἐλπίς (stem ἐλπιδ-), voc. ἐλπί).

99²⁶. Dative Plural. – When ν alone is dropped before the ending –σι of the dative plural (§ 34), the preceding vowel remains unchanged, contrary to § 34: thus, ποιμέσι to shepherds, for *ποιμεν-σι; δαίμοσι to divinities, for *δαίμον-σι.

1. But when ντ is dropped, the preceding vowel is lengthened: thus, λέουσι to lions, for *λεοντ-σι; πᾶσι to all, for *παντ-σι.

100. Special Rule of Accent. – Words with stems of one syllable in the third declension regularly have the written accent on the last syllable of the genitive and dative of all numbers. If the last syllable is long, it receives the circumflex (§ 77, 2): thus, πούς foot, gen. sing. ποδός, gen. plur. ποδῶν, dat. plur. ποδί.

Note. For exceptions see δᾷς (§ 115, 5), δμώς (§ 115, 7), οὖς (§ 115, 18), παῖς (§ 115, 19), πᾶς (§ 125, 2), Τρώς (§ 115, 23), and ὤν (§ 129, 3).

CONSONANT STEMS

101. Labial and Palatal Stems. – Stems ending in a labial or palatal mute are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ὁ Αἱθίοψ (stem Αἱθιοπ-) Aethiopian, ὁ χάλυψ (stem χαλυβ-) steel, ἡ κλῖμαξ (stem κλῑμακ-) ladder, ἡ μάστιξ (stem μαστῑγ-) whip, ὁ ὄνυξ (stem ὀνυχ-) claw.

1. For the ξ and ψ in the nominative singular and dative plural, see §§ 28 and 29. For the vocative singular, see § 98, 1. For the change of θ to τ in θρίξ see § 41.

102²⁷. Lingual Stems. – Stems ending in a lingual mute are, thus, declined:

Masculine and feminine

So also are declined ὁ ἔρως (stem ἐρωτ-) love, ἡ ἐσθής (stem ἐσθητ-, gen. sing. ἐσθῆτοςτ) clothing, ἡ λαμπάς (stem λαμπαδ-, gen. sing. λαμπάδος) torch, ἡ χάρις (stem χαριτ-) favor, ὁ γίγᾱς (stem γιγαντ-) giant, ὁ έλων (stem λεοντ-) lion, ὁ ὀδούς (stem ὀδοντ-, gen. sing. ὀδόντος) tooth (the nominative singular is formed contrary to § 96, 1).

1. For the dropping of τ (and ντ), δ, or θ before δ in the nominative singular and dative plural, see § 30. For the dative plural of stems in –ντ– (like γέρουσι) see § 99, 1. For the vocative singular, see § 98, 1. For the accusative singular of stems in –ιτ– and –ιδ– (χάριν, ἔριν) see § 97, 1.

103²⁸.

NEUTER

So also are declined στόμα (stem δτοματ-) mouth, ὄνομα (stem ὀνοματ-) name, μέλι (stem μελιτ-) honey, γάλα (stem γαλακτ-) milk (§ 48).

1. A few words form their nominative from a stem in –ρ– (§ 73, 1): thus, ἦπαρ (gen. sing, ἤπατ-ος) liver, ἦμαρ (gen. sing. ἤματ-ος) day (poetic).

2. Four words, πέρασ, πέρατοσ, end; τέρασ, τέρατοσ prodigy; κέρασ, κέρατοσ, horn; φῶς (contracted from φάος), light, form their nominatives singular from a stem ending in σ (§ 73, 1). (For the full declension of κέρας see § 115, 10.)

104. Liquid Stems. – Stems ending in a liquid are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ὁ μήν (stem μην-) month, ὁ αἰών (stem αἰων-) age, ὁ κρᾱτήρ (stem κρᾱτηρ-) mixing bowl, ὁ φώρ (stem φωρ-) thief, ὁ θήρ (stem θηρ-) wild beast.

1. For the dative plural, see § 99.

Note. – In vocative singular three words, σωτήρ savior, Ἀπόλλων Apollo, and Ποσειδῶν Poseidon, have a short vowel (§ 13) in the syllable of the stem (contrary to § 98, 1) and throw the written accent back upon the first syllable: thas σῶτερ, Ἄπολλον, Πόσειδον (cf. § 105, 2).

105²⁹. Five substantives of the third declension with stems ending in ρ show in their inflection two forms of the stem, one with ε, and the other with no vowel (or with α). See §§ 14 and 73, 1.

These are: πατήρ father, μήτηρ mother, θυγάτηρ daughter, γαστήρ belly, ἀνήρ man. In ἀνήρ, a δ is developed between the ν and ρ whenever they come together. These words are, thus, declined:

Like πατήρ is declined γαστήρ belli. (See also § 115, 2.)

1. Observe that in the genitive and dative the shorter forms take their written accent on the last syllable, after the analogy of stems of one syllable (§ 100): thus, πατρός, ἀνδρῶν (but πατέρων, ἀνδράσι).

2. Observe that the vocative singular of these words has recessive accent (cf. § 104, note).

3. For the α in the dative plural, see § 14, 1.

106³⁰. Stems in –σ-. – Stems ending in σ lose their final σ whenever it comes between two vowels (§ 37) and the vowels, thus, brought together usually contract.

Such stems are, thus, inflected:

So also are declined τὸ τεῖχος wall, τὸ ἄνθος flower, τὸ ἔτος year, τὸ γῆρας old age, τὸ κέρας horn, wing (with other forms from a stem κερατ-; see § 115, 10).

1. Observe that neuters ending in –ος form their nominative, accusative, and vocative singular from the stem in –οσ-. (See §§ 14 and 73, 1).

2. In the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of neuters in –ος, –εα after ε contracts into ᾱ. Thus, χρέᾱ for χρέε-α (*χρεεσ-α) from χρέος debt, stem χρεεσ-.

107. Masculine and feminine

So also are declined Δηνοσθένης Demosthenes, Διογένης Diogenes.

1. Observe that the vocative singular of names like Σωκράτης has recessive accent.

108³¹. Proper names in –κλεης, of which the last part is the stem κλεες– (κλέος fame), are doubly contracted in the dative. Περικλῆς (stem Περικλεεσ-) Pericles is thus, declined:

109³². Stems in –οσ-. – There is one stem in –οσ– (ἡ αἰδώς shame) which is, thus, inflected: nom. αἰδώς, gen. αἰδῦς (*αἰδος-ος, αἰδό-ος?), dat. αἰδοῖ (*αἰδόσ-ι, αἰδό-ι), acc. αἰδῶ (*αἰδοσ-α, αἰδο-α), voc. αἰδώς. The dual and plural are not found.

VOWEL STEMS

110³³. Stems in –ι– and –υ-. – Stems ending in ι or υ are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ἡ δύναμις power, ὁ μάντις seer, ὁ πέλεκυς axe (like πῆχυς), ὁ or ἡ σῦς hog (like ἰχθῡ́ς gen. sing. συ-ός), βότρυς cluster of grapes (like ἰχθῡ́ς but with short υ). Most of these words are masculine or feminine; the only neuter in frequent use is ἄστυ town.

Note. – It is probable that in words like πόλις and πῆχυς we have, as we have seen elsewhere (§ 105, 1), two forms of the same stem existing side by side, πολι– and πολει– (see §§ 14, 2 and 73, 1). Thus, the nominative is formed from the shorter stem, ut the genitive was originally from the longer stem(*πόλι-ς, *πῆχυ-ς). These latter forms, however, are not found, for the ι or υ at once went over into the corresponding consonant form (j or F) and disappeared (§ 21). In compensation the preceding vowel was sometimes lengthened (§ 16), and thus, we have πόλη-ος (in Homer) and *πηχη-ος, by an interchange of quantity (§ 17), we get the usual Attic forms πόλεως and πήχεως. Observe that the interchange of quantity does not affect the position of the accent (§ 60).

1. Most steins in –v– keep the υ throughout and are declined like ἰχθῡ́ς. Stems of one syllable have the circumflex accent in the nominative, accusative, and vocative.

2. Proper names in –ις usually retain the ι of the stem throughout their inflection: thus, Συέννεσις Syennesis, gen. Συεννέσι-ος, etc. So also is declined κῑ́ς weevil, gen. κῑός, etc.

3. Observe that the accent of the genitive plural is irregularly made like that of the genitive singular.

4. The accusatives plural, πόλεις and πήχεις, are irregularly made like the nominatives plural.

111³⁴. Stems ending in a diphthong lose the final vowel of the stem before all endings beginning with a vowel (§ 21). They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ὁ ἱππεύς horseman, ὁ ἱρεύς priest, ὁ χοῦς three-quart measure (but w. acc χόα, acc. plur. χόας).

Note. – Many of the forms from stems in -ευ- are to be explained similarly to thouse from πῆχυς and πόλις. Thas, the genetive singular βασιλέ-ως comes by an interchange of quantity (§ 17), from βασιλῆ-ος (in Homer), and this, in turn, is for *βασιλῆφ-ος (§ 21). So also the accusatives singular and plural have -έ-ᾱ and -έ-ᾱς, for earlier -ῆ-α and -ῆ-ας.

1. Observe that the nominative, accusative, and vocative dual (βασιλῆ), and the older form of the nominative plural βασιλῆς), are contracted from βασιλῆ-ε and βασιλῆ-ες. (See note.)

2. When the final –ευ– of the stem follows a vowel or diphthong, contraction usually takes place in the genitive and accusative. Thus, Πειραιεύς Peiraeus usually has for its genitive Πειραιεῶς (for Πειραιέως)?), and for its accusative Πειραιᾶ (for Πειραιέᾱ).

112. Stems in –οι-. – Stems ending in οι (found in the singular only) lose their final ι in all cases except the vocative (§ 21). They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ἡ ἠχώ echo, ἡ Λητώ Leto. All words which follow this declension have their written accent on the last syllable.

113³⁵. Stems in –ω– (or ωF). A few words of the third declension appear to have stems ending in ω, but this could not have been the original ending. Possibly such stems ended originally in –ωF-. They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ὁ μήτρως mother's brother, ὁ πάτρως father's brother.

SUBSTANTIVES OF PECULIAR OR IRREGULAR DECLENSION

114³⁶. 1. The Greeks sometimes declined the same word in different ways, especially when two different stems would give the same nominative singular. Thus, the stems σκοτο– and σκοτεσ– both give a nominative singular σκοτος darkness, genitive singular σκότου (2d decl.) or σκότους (3d decl.). So also stems of proper names in –ης, like Σωκρατεσ– (nom. sing. Σωκράτης, gen. sing. Σωκράτους, ace. sing. Σωκράτη), have sometimes an accusative singular in –ην; (Σωκράτην), as if of the first declension.

2. Again, certain cases may have been formed from stems of wholly different words: thus, ὁ ὄνειρος dream (2d decl. regular), but gen. sing, also ὁνείρατος, dat. ὁνείρατι, nom. plur. ὁνείρατα, gen. ὁνειράτων, dat. ὁνείρασι. See also § 103, 1 and 2.

3. Again, words sometimes have different genders in the different numbers. Thus, σῖτος grain (masc.) has for its plural σῖτα (neuter); τὸ στάδιον stade has for its plural usually oἱ στάδιοι.

115³⁷. The peculiarities of substantives irregularly declined can best be learned from a lexicon, but some of the more important of these will be found in the following list:

1. ὁ Ἄρης (stem Ἀρεσ-) Ares, gen. Ἄρεως (poetic Ἄρεος ), dat. Ἄρει, voc. Ἄρες.

2. [ὁ, ἡ ἀρήν] (stem ἀρεν-, ἀρν-, ἀρνα-) lamb, of the same kind of declension as πατήρ (§ 105): thus, ἀρν–ός, ἀρν–ι, ἄρν-α, ἄρν-εα, ἀρνά-σι. The nominative singular is supplied by ἀμνός, 2d decl., regular.

3. τὸ γόνυ knee (Lat. genu), nom. ace. voc. sing. All other cases are formed from stem γόνατ- ος, γόνατ-ι, etc.

4. ἡ γυνή woman. All other forms come from a stem γυναικ-: the genitives and datives have their written accent on the last syllable: gen. sing. γυναικός, dat. γυναικί, acc. γυναῖκα, voc. γύναι ; dual γυναῖκε, γυναικοῖν; plur. γυναῖκες, γυναικῶν, γυναιξί, γυναῖκας. (Cf. § 73, 1).

5. ἡ δᾶς (δᾷδ-) torch, 3d decl., regular, but the genitive plural δᾷ́δων is an exception to the rule of accent for stems of one syllable (§ 100).

6. τὸ δόρυ spear, nom. ace. voc. sing. All other case from stem δορατ– (cf. γόυν, § 115, 3): δόρατ–ος, δόρατ–ι, etc. (cf. § 73, 1). Poetic gen. δορός, dat. δορί and δόρeι.

7. ὁ δμώς (δμω-) slave (poetic); 3d decl., regular, but the genitive plural (δμώων) is an exception to the rule of accent for stems of one syllable (§ 100).

8. Ζεύς (cf. § 39, 2) Ζeus, gen. Διός, dat. Διϊ; acc. Δία, voc. Ζεῦ.

9. τὸ κάρᾱ (καρᾱτ-, κρᾱτ-, § 73, 1) head (poetic), gen. κρᾱτ–ος, dat. κρᾱτ-ί or κάρᾷ, acc. κάρᾱ (or even κρᾶτα), voc. κάρᾱ; acc. plur. (rare) τοὺς κρᾶτας.

10. τὸ κέρας horn, wing, has forms from two different stems, κερασ– and κερατ-. See § 103, 2, and a. Sing. nom. acc. voc. κέρας, gen. κέρᾱτ or κέρως (for *κερα(σ)-ος, dat. κέρᾱτ–ι or κέρᾷ; dual nom. acc. voc. κέρᾱτε or κέρᾱ, gen. dat. κερᾱ́τοιν or κέρῳν; plur. nom. acc. voc. κέρᾱτα or κέρᾱ, gen. κερᾱ́των, dat. κέρᾱσι. In the meaning wing, forms from the stem κερασ are usually employed.

11. ὁ, ἡ κύων dog, voc. sing. κύον. All other cases from a stem κυν-: κυνός, κυνί, κύνα; plur. κυνeς, κυνῶν, κυσί, κύνας.

12. ὁ λᾶς stone (poetic), contracted from λᾶα-ς, gen. λᾶ-ος, dat. λᾶ-ϊ, acc. λᾶα-ν, λᾶ-ν; plur. λᾶ-ες, λᾱ́-ων, λᾱ́-εσσι, or λᾱ́-εσι.

13. ὁ, ῥ μάρτυς (μαρτυρ-) witness, gen. μάρτυρ-ος, etc., regular, except dat. plur μάρτυσι.

14. Οἰδίπους Oedipus, gen. Οἰδίποδος or Οἰδίπου (§ 114, 1), dat. Οἰδίποσι, acc. Οἰδίπουν, voc. Οἰδίπους or Οἰδίπου.

15. ἡ οἶς sheep (stem οι– for ὀφι-, cf. Lat. ovis), sing. οἶ-ς, οἰ-ός, οἰ-ΐ', οἶ-ν; plur. οἶ-ες, οἰ-ῶv, οἰ-σί, οἶς.

16. ὁ, ἡ ὄρνῑς (ὀρνῑθ-) bird, declined regularly (§ 102), but acc. sing, both ὄρνῑθα and ὄρνῑν (§ 97, 1).

17. τὸ οὖς ear, sing. nom. acc. voc. οὖς, all other forms from a stem ὠτ– (contracted from οὐατ– (*ὀ(φ)ατ-), see § 115, 18 a): thus, ὠτ-ός, ὠτ-ί; plur. ὦ-τα, ὤ-των, ὠσί. The genitive plural is an exception to the rule of accent for stems of one syllable (§ 100).

18. ὁ, ἡ παῖς (παιδ-) child, gen. παιδός, etc., regular, but voc. sing. παῖ. The genitive and dative dual (παί– δοιν) and the genitive plural (παίδων) are exceptions to the rule of accent for stems of one syllable (§ 100).

19. ἡ Πνύξ Pnyx (Πνυκ/c-, Πυκν-, § 38), Πυκνός, Πυκνί, Πύκνα.

20. ὁ πρεσβευτής (πρεσβευτᾱ-) embassador, rare in the plural. Instead, the plural of the poetic πρέσβυς (πρεσβυ-) old man is commonly used: thus, πρέσβεις, πρέσβεων, πρέσβεσι, πρέσβεις.

21. τὸ πῦρ (stem πυρ-) fire, gen. πυρός, etc., 3d decl.; but plural τὰ πυρά watch-fires, dat. πυροῖς, 2d decl.

22. ὁ Τρώς (stem Τρω-) Trojan; the genitive plural (Τρώων) is an exception to the rule of accent for stems of one syllable (§ 100).

23. τὸ ὔδωρ (ὑδατ-) water, gen. ὕδατος, etc.

24. ὁ υἱός (υἱό– and sometimes ὑο-, § 21) son, 2d decl., regular; also many 3d decl. forms from a stem υἱυ– or ὑυ (ι being usually dropped between the two vowels, § 21). These are: sing. gen. υ(ἱ)έος, dat. υ(ἱ)εῖ ; dual υ(ἱ)εῖ, υ(ἱ)έοιν; plur. υ(ἱ)εῖς, υ(ἱ)έων, υ(ἱ)έσι, υ(ἱ)εῖς.

25. ῥ χεἰρ (χειρ-) hand, 3d decl., regular, but dat. plur. χερσί, and sometimes dat. dual χεροῖν.

116. The declension of adjectives in Greek is like that of substantives, and the general statements given under the three declensions of substantives will apply also to the declension of adjectives.

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS

(Vowel Declension)

117³⁸. Most adjectives of the first and second declensions have three endings, masc. –ος, fern, –ᾱ or –η (§ 15), neut. –ος (cf. §§ 81 and 90). The masculine and neuter follow the second declension; the feminine follows the first declension. They are inflected as follows:

So alswo are declined σοφός, σοφή, σοφόν wise, μακρός, μακρᾱ́, μακρόν long, ἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιον worthy.

1. Observe that the feminine always has a long vowel, either ᾱ or η. After ε, ι or ρ the ᾱ is retained, otherwise it is changet to η (§ 83). After ο on η follows, unlees the ο is preceded by ρ; then ᾱ is employed: thas ὀγδόη (fem.) eight, but ἀθρόᾱ (fem.) collected.

2. Observe that, in regard to accent, the feminine follows the masculine rather than its own nominative singular. Thas φίλιαι nom. plur. and φιλίων gen. plur (contrary to §§ 77 and 84).

3. In the dual, the masculine forms are often used instead of the feminine. Thas, φίλω κόρα, two dear girls.

118. Many adjectives in –εος and -οος are contracted. They are, thus, declined:

1. Observe that in contraction, a short vowel before a is absorbed. Thus, χρῡσέαις becomes χρῡσάις and ἁπλόα ἁπλᾶ. In the feminine singular, however, this takes place only after ρ: ἀργυρέᾱ, ἀργυρᾶ, but ἁπλέᾱ, ἁπλῆ (cf. § 83).

2. Observe that adjectives in –οος form their contracted feminine from a stem in –εα-.

3. Adjectives of material in –εος irregularly have their written accent on their contract syllables. Thus, χρῡ́σεος, when contracted, becomes χρῡσοῦς. For the accent of the nominative dual (χρῡσώ) cf. § 91, 2.

Adjectives of two endings in the vowel declension

119³⁹. By an adjective of two endings, we mean one that uses the masculine form also for the feminine. Thus, masc. and fern. ἥσυχος, neut. ἥσυχον quiet.

Compound adjectives, as a rule, have only two endings: so ἄ-λογος, ἄ-λογον irrational, εὔ-νους, εὔ-νουν well-disposed. They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined βάρβαρος, βάρβαρον barbarian, ἐπί-φθονος, ἐπί-φθονον envious, ἄ-τεκνος, ἄ-τεκνον childless: so also with contraction (see § 91, 3), εὔ-νους (εὔ-νοος), εὔ-νουν well-disposed.

1. For the accent of ἵλεως, see § 92, 2.

2. One adjective, πλέως, full has a feminine πλέᾱ.

THIRD DECLENSION

(Consonant Declension)

120⁴⁰. Adjectives belonging wholly to the consonant declension have only two endings, the masculine being the same as the feminine.

Most of these have stems ending in εσ– or ον. They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined σαφής, σαφές clear; ἐνδεής, ἐνδεές needy (see § 120, 3); σώφρων, σῶφρων discreet; ἄρρην, ἄρρεν male. For fuller information about stems in –εσ– see §§ 106–107.

1. Observe that the accent of the neuter εὔδαιμον is recessive.

2. Compound adjectives in –ης, without written accent on the last syllable, have recessive accent even in contracted forms: Thus, masc. and fem. αὐτάρκης self-sufficient, neut. αὔταρκες, gen. plur. αὐτάρκων (instead of αὐτάρκῶν from αὐτάρκέ(σ)-ων.

3. The contraction of εα following an ε (and sometimes an ι or υ) gives ᾱ (cf. § 118, 1): thus, ἐνδεᾶ for e from ἐνδεέ(σ)-α from ἐνδεής needy.

121. Declension of Comparatives in –ων. – To this form of declension belong also comparatives in –ων, which in some cases are often formed on a stem in –οσ– (§ 73, 1) (cf. Lat. mel–ίōr–is for *mel-iōs-is), and so suffer contraction. They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined μείξων greater (neut. μεῖξον), καλλῑ́ων more beautiful, θᾱ́ττων swifter.

1. Observe that the neuter (βέλτῑον) is recessive in accent.

2. The accusative βελτῑους (which should properly be βελτῑως for βελτῑο(σ)-ας is imitated from the nominative.

Other adjectives of two endings in the consonant declension

Some other adjectives of two endings are made by compounding substantives with a prefix. Such, for example, are:

εὔ-ελπις, εὔ-ελπι of good hope, gen. sing. εὐέλπιδ-ος, acc. sing. masc. and fem. εὔελπιν (§ 97, 1), ἀ-πάτωρ, ἄ-πατορ fatherless, gen. sing, ἀ-πάτορ-ος, etc.

ADJECTIVES OF THREE ENDINGS OF THE FIRST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS

122. Adjectives of the consonant declension which have a separate form for the feminine always inflect the feminine like the second class of substantives of the first declension (§§ 81, 82).

1. The feminine is formed from the stem of the masculine by adding –ια, but the ι regularly combines with the preceding letter (see § 18, 1, and § 39).

2. The genitive plural of the feminine always has the circumflex accent on the last syllable (§ 84).

123⁴¹. Stems in –υ-. – Adjectives with stems ending in υ are, thus, declined:

So also are declined γλυκύς sweet, βραδύς slow, εὐρύς wide.

1. Observe that the genitive singular masculine and neuter ends in –ος, and that the neuter plural is uncontracted. Compare the declension of πῆχυς and ἄστυ (§ 110).

Note. The feminine ταχεῖα is for *ταχευ-ια (cf. § 14, 2 and § 21).

124. Stems in –αν-. – Adjectives with steims ending in αν are, thus, declined:

Like μέλᾱς is declined only τάλᾱς? wretched.

Note. The feminine μέλαινα is for *μέλαν-ια (see § 39, 4).

1. The nominative singular masculine is formed with ς, contrary to § 96, 1. Observe that the nominative singular masculine (μέλᾱς) has long ᾱ according to § 34, while the short a of the dative plural (μέλᾱσι) is in accordance with § 99.

125. Stems in –ντ-. – Stems in –ντ– are, thus, declined:

Like χαρίεις are inflected πτερόεις winged, voiced.

Note 1. The feminine –πᾶσα is for *παντ-jα, *παντ-σα (§ 34), while χαρίεσσα (-εττα, see § 125, 1) is for *χαρίεντια (§ 39, 1), from a shorter form of the stem (χαριετ-). The dative plural χαρίεσι (for *χαριετ-σι, § 30) also comes from this stem.

Note 2. The nominatives singular masculine χαρίεις and πᾶς are for *χαριεντ-ς and *παντ-ς. See § 34.

1. The feminine of adjectives like χαρίες occurs only in poetic diction, and so the feminine χαρίεσσα has σσ instead of ττ (§ 22). The Attic prose form of this word would be χαρίεττα.

2. Observe that the genitives and datives πάντων, πᾶσι are accented contrary to § 100.

3. Observe that the neuter singular πᾶν irregularly has ᾱ, imitated from the masculine.

Adjectives of one ending

126. A few adjectives from their meaning have no neuter, and the masculine and feminine are inflected alike: so ἄ-παις childless, gen. sing. ἄ-παιδ-ος, etc.; πένης poor, gen. sing. πένητ–ος, etc.

ADJECTIVES OF IRREGULAR DECLENSION

127⁴². The irregular adjectives μέγας great (stems μεγα and μεγαλο-, § 73, 1) and πολύς much, many (stems πολυ and πολλο-, § 73, 1) are, thus, declined:

Note. In πολύς two stems are to be seen (§ 73, 1), one with and one without ο: thus, (1) πολλυ– and (2) πολλυ-, i.e. πολφο, and by assimilation πολλο.

128. Declension of πρᾷος. – πρᾷος mild (stem πρᾷο-) forms its feminine and usually most of its plural from a stem πρᾱυ– (§ 73, 1). Thus, nom. sing. fern. πρᾱεῖα (for *πρᾱευα–ια; cf. ταχεῖα, § 123, note), nom. plur. masc. πρᾷοι or πρᾱεῖς, gen. plur. masc. πρᾷ́ων or (usually) πρᾱέων, etc.

DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES

129. All participles of the middle voice, together with the participle of the future passive, are inflected like ἀγαθός (§ 117).

All other participles, namely, the participles of the active voice, together with the participle of the aorist passive, belong to the first and third declensions (§ 122). The stems of all of these, with the exception of the perfect active participle, end in ντ. Such participles are, thus, declined:

So also are declined παιδεύων educating (like βουλεύων, λιπών (2d aor.) having left (like ὤν), ἑκών willing (like ὤν), παιδεύσᾱς having educated (like λῡ́σᾱς), ἱστᾱ́ς erecting (like λῡ́σᾱς), παιδευθείς educated (like λυτείς), τιθείς putting (like λυτείς).

1. Observe that all stems in –οντ-, except those of –μι verbs (§ 170), form their nominative singular masculine without –ς, according to § 96, 1. All other stems in –ντ– form their nominative by adding –ς.

2. Observe that the accent of the neuter singular follows that of the masculine (βουλεῦον, unlike εὔδαιμον, § 120, 1).

3. Observe that participles of one syllable keep their written accent on the first syllable in the genitive and dative, contrary to § 100.

4. Observe that the vocative singular is like the nominative (cf. § 98, 1).

130. The present participle of verbs in –ῶ, (-άω, -έω and –όω) and the future participle of liquid verbs (§ 213) are contracted. They are declined as follows: